Hughes, T.P. 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale 
degradation of a Caribbean coral reef.  Science Wash. 265(5178):  
1547-1551. 
 
Many coral reefs have been degraded over the past two to three 
decades through a combination of human and natural disturbances. 
In Jamaica, the effects of overfishing, hurricane damage, and 
disease have combined to destroy most corals, whose abundance has 
declined from more than 50 percent in the late 1970s to less than 
5 percent today. A dramatic phase shift has occurred, producing a 
system dominated by fleshy macroalgae (more than 90 percent 
cover). Immediate implementation of management procedures is 
necessary to avoid further catastrophic damage.